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* The real estate investment education should be invested by you. Make the effort to find out what you need to know about getting this type of education. Visit the leading blogs in the field and make comments. Find message boards at which real estate gurus post on.

* Make sure you become an expert in an area. It is more yielding to be an expert in a specific area of real estate rather than possessing general knowledge about the entire field. Larger companies are so well diverse that they look for specialists in certain fields.

* Have a membership in real estate club. A real estate club can give you the extra knowledge that you need as well as some great contacts within the industry. There are times when you do not have anytime to go to a physical real estate club. Hence, the best way is to join a virtual real estate club online.

* Go above and beyond the call of duty. To improve your real estate education research some good books on Amazon. There are various resources there which you can use to improve your education. Go out and search for good information.

* An internship can be taken. Being an intern with a real estate company that has a solid reputation will definitely work to your advantage when you look for that future job. You will gain practical knowledge that one cannot be taught in a school. It is also a good way to have more contacts in the real estate industry.

* There will be tons of work. Learning a lot of different things is involved in getting a good real estate education. There will be many skills to learn while becoming educated, including finance and negotiation skills.

• Enjoy the ride. Investing your time and money into getting an education in real estate might be one of the most rewarding experiences of your life.

Learning how to do something that you are passionate about is one of the very best things you may ever do in your lifetime. If you are really cut out to be a real estate agent then you will adore this job for as long as you live.

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Iran, as a historically, culturally, and scientifically ancient country has had a prosperous status in the human life and worlds education. To give an example, Iranian cosmopolitan scientists and educators such as Bozorgmehr, Ferdowsi, Birooni, Razi, Avicenna, Sadie, Khayyam, Nasir-oddin-Toosi, and many others are among the great educators and scientists who have played an important role in human life. When we compare this with other main ancient countries of China, India, Egypt, and Greek, it becomes clear that only Greek scientists and educators are comparable to Iranians in the amount of influence of their science and education on international and historical basis.

But, nowadays, in terms of innovations in culture, education, and other sciences, both philosophically and methodologically, Iranian scientists and educators research products are not remarkable. Todays Iranian human sciences are academically and socially struggling with some essential problems and challenges that block the process of qualitative growth and development of sciences and education in this ancient land which was once one of the most valuable cradles of knowledge and wisdom.

Research indicates that the qualitative development of higher education in our country is much lower than its quantitative growth. During the past 25 years (1981-2005), the Iranian academic community and its institutions have expanded dramatically (Yalpani, et. al, 2006). Currently, there are more than 50 state universities, and nearly 150 non-private technical undergraduate schools, which enroll about 750,000 students. There are also about 60 official research institutions throughout the country. In addition, since 1984, an extensive country wide private university system (mostly undergraduates) was started which enrolls another 750,000 full time students.

We may ask why the qualitative development and scientific products, especially in social sciences and humanities, are not worthy to mention. According to the data provided by the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology for the academic year 2003, the total numbers of master and doctoral students and available faculty were 68287, 12189, and 25723, respectively. Subtracting from the latter the 50 percent of instructors/tutors, who are not directly involved in any meaningful research activity, there still remain 12861 potentially researching faculty members.

The same source gives the total numbers of national scientific output for 2003 as 3326 counts. This means that each faculty member has produced in that year 0.23 indexed scientific publications. Should we include all those who with their daily work collect the needed scientific data, i.e., the graduate students, each year we end up with a publication per scientific worker ratio of only 0.034. This number is the resultant when we include all academic disciplines. When we now focus our attention to the Social Sciences and Humanities group, the situation seems to be significantly worse (op. cited). In a research conducted by the present author himself, it has been found out that there are only seven research-based scientific journals of education. in our country with maximum publication volume of 10 thousands for about one million teachers and about one hundred thousand educational experts. All these mean that we are confronting huge problems and challenges with regard to the educational research products and publications.

The question is why there is such a shortage in scientific review articles, especially in education, in our country. Our understanding is that there are different problems confronting scientists in Iran. These problems are tremendously larger and much more complicated for researches in social sciences and humanities than natural and pure experimental sciences. Ideological problems are the most difficult ones in human sciences and education as well. The more brilliant the scientists of human sciences, the more frustrated they are from scientific institutions. Medium-range researchers seem to be much happier with the scientific institution to which they belong compared to the brighter scholars. These institutions seem not to play a positive role in the case of the best scientists. Shortage of facilities provided by institutions are one other major problem for research. Another is the tenuous cooperation among scientists.

In such a situation, the Quarterly Journal of Educational Innovations aims to focus on most significant preoccupations and questions concerning educational issues and then to answer them. The articles of this journal explain some problems and challenges of education and try to show the main roots and factors of the problems that the education system is encountered with. As well, it seeks to reach an understanding and offering of the specific and applied ways through which the educational sciences can be grown and developed. In this special issue of the Quarterly Journal of Educational Innovations, nineteen articles are presented in English language to follow its six years of publication in Persian language. We welcome the researchers and scientists of education and psychology to send their articles in English language to be considered and reviewed for publication. As a prospective aim, we are looking forward to publishing the journal in both English and Persian in parallel form to reach the international scientific society as well as the one inside Iran as we have done in the past time.

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Let’s review 7 ideas to obtain the maximum from your real estate education.

Education of real estate investment is a good field to invest. Invest enough time to increase your knowledge about your education. Visit the leading blogs in the field and make comments. Find message boards at which real estate gurus post on.

• Specialize in an area. Generally knowing about real estate isn’t usually as profitable as knowing everything about a particular area of real estate. You have to be a specialists to be hired by a big company.

Be part of a real estate club. A real estate club can provide you the added knowhow that you need and also some excellent contacts within the industry. If you don’t have time to go to a physical real estate club, a virtual real estate club can be joined by you online.

Go above and beyond the call of duty. To improve your real estate education research some good books on Amazon. There are various resources there which you can use to improve your education. Get out there and look for the best information.

Accept a position as an intern. Working with a reputable company in an intern role will go a long way towards impressing future employers. The experience that you get can not be taught in a classroom, only through getting into the field. In real estate market, numerous connections can be established in this method very effectively.

A huge quantity of work can be anticipated. Learning a lot of different things is involved in getting a good real estate education. Finance, business, management, contract law, and negotiation skills will all be learnt by you along the way.

Find pleasure in the journey. Out of the most entertaining experiences of your life, acquiring the real estate education can be one of them

Real estate investment education is one of the best things that can be done by you. If you are really cut out to be a real estate agent then you will adore this job for as long as you live.

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Research in Germany
There are lots of reasons why Germany is so successful. One of the most important is close cooperation between universities, international research institutes and industry. Expert networks of this kind have established themselves in 32 regions of Germany. They operate nationwide and are able to produce innovations with particularly high value-added potential. They are embedded in a framework of innovation-friendly conditions and contribute to the regions’ profile creation.

Cutting-edge research also takes place at hundreds of non-university institutions belonging to organisations like the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Association, the Leibniz Association, or the Fraunhofer Gesellschaft. It is here that scientists can find optimum conditions only available at very few other institutions worldwide. The Helmholtz Association alone, the largest of the organisations, employs a staff of about 24,000, 4,500 of whom come from abroad. It has a budget of 2.2 billion euros (2006) which is channeled into research areas such as energy, health and transportation.

Internationalisation – Science without borders
Germany’s cabinet adopted the “Strategy for Internationalisation of Science and Research” on 20 February 2008. The government specifically aims to boost collaborative research with developing countries and so open up new fields of innovative potential. Furthermore, it also plans to take on greater international responsibility and to focus more on addressing global challenges.

More mobile, more present
Measures include improvements to the exchange of scientific staff, international collaborative research programmes, and an internationally coordinated research agenda. The strategy provides for a harmonized international German presence in science and research, plus a campaign to promote Germany’s role as a major centre of education, research and innovation.

The “Research in Germany” Initiative
The Internationalisation Strategy includes measures aimed at highlighting Germany’s appeal and its research landscape in selected topic areas of the High-Tech Strategy. It provides a special focus on selected countries. This marks a decisive contribution by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) to promoting German innovation around the world.

Regional and thematic focuses
The first regional measures were implemented in South Korea in 2006 und 2007, one of Asia’s high-tech countries. Two key HTS topics for the future provide a hub for further campaigns: Nanosciences and environmental technologies. Specifically targeted, international marketing measures will promote these German research achievements in 2008 and 2009. Further activities are planned in India as from the end of 2008 – to expand and consolidate our cooperation with the world’s best.

There are well-established scientific institutions in India and Germany working together on bilateral research and development projects. They also continue to invest in the next generation of leading scientists by championing exchange programs between universities in both countries.

Growing number of Indian students in Germany
The number of Indian students who enroll at German universities in recent years has risen more quickly than that of students from any other country: by 50 percent between 1997 and 2006. More than 4,000 Indian students are currently studying and conducting research at German universities; in 2006 alone the number of exchange students totaled 1,179.

German Academic Exchange Service
The DAAD (German Academic Exchange Service) is a leading educational organization that promotes the transfer of young scientific minds by providing grants and scholarships and a cohesive support system. In India the DAAD is currently active through information centers in cities throughout the nation and a network of 27 personal tutors at 20 of the top universities.

Alexander von Humboldt Foundation
In a similar vein, the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (AvH) in Germany has funded a total of 1,531 promising junior scientists from India since 1953 – 19 of which have won awards for their research achievements. The German Rectors’ Conference (HRK) cooperates with the Association of Indian Universities (AIU) to advance the educational exchange.

Joint scientific projects
The STC is also building on this Indo-German symbiosis. Institutions within its framework undertake joint scientific projects in the areas of biotechnology, health, information technology, environmental technology, sustainable research, materials research, aerospace research, production technology and security research.
Projects range in scope from the exchange of personnel between the international firms and educational institutions (PPP), to large-scale collaborations. German research institutions expanding their cooperation with India include the Max Planck Institute (which presently has 12 partner groups in India), the Helmholtz Association, the Fraunhofer Association, the Leibniz Association and the German Research Foundation, which is currently involved in expanding research efforts in nanotechnology.

If you want to research in Germany please visit the German Information Centre where you can get all the information related to research in Germany

.

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History
On June 30, 1929, the Cabinet ratified that the government print and edit the primary textbooks exclusively. The responsibility was transferred to the office of Examinations and Programs.
.The activity began in 1967 at the General Office of Studies and Programs under the supervision and management of five foreign advisors.
.The Organization for Research and Educational Innovation was established under the law passed by the Consultative Assembly and the Senate on July 8, 1976.
.In 1977, the Organization for Text-books and the Organization for Research and Educational Innovation joined to form a new organization.
. On March 3, 1979, under the ratification of the Supreme Council of the Islamic Revolution, the new organization was named the Organization for Educational Research and Planning (OERP).
Objectives:
.To research and survey on the quality issues of the education
.To develop educational programs
.To write and edit text-books
.To support Schools and educational institutes in using new tools and methods
All of these objectives support the major aim of increasing the quality of the educational system
OERP Responsibilities :
1. To research on the content of the educational
2. To study and develop simple methods for examinations and educational assessments
3. To write, edit and print text-books.
4. To identify and provide educational tools and the list of standards for educational tools and equipments
5. To run pure research on improving the quality and quantity of education
6. To perform other responsibilities issued by the OERO Council

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NATIONAL FORUM OF APPLIED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL

Volume 23, Numbers 1&2, 2009-2010

FOREWORD

STRATEGIC PLANNING USING THE WAYS OF KNOWING THROUGH THE REALMS OF MEANING By Queinnise Miller, PhD Student in Educational Leadership, Cohort 5 – PVAMU – The Texas A&M University System

About the Issue

The year 2004 marked the inception of the Educational Leadership Doctoral Program in the Whitlowe R. Green College of Education at Prairie View A&M University.  Since then over 32 educational professionals have graduated and joined the academy of Doctors of Philosophy in Educational Leadership.  As the program grows each year new cohorts of educational professionals are established, and the future of research becomes brighter.  This special issue contains the thoughts and theories based on research  of  Cohort  5, as  it  relates  to  strategic  planning as a theoretical framework by utilizing  the Ways  of  Knowing Through  the Realms of  Meaning (2007) by Dr. William Allan Kritsonis.  These articles were a partial requirement for a course in the doctoral program taught by Professor Kritsonis.

In the first article, Queinnise Miller explores professional learning communities while taking a look at how they impact school improvement and their place in strategic planning in education.  In the second article, Rosnisha Stevenson discusses ways school districts can meet one of their goals on their campus improvement plan and increase their standardized test scores by using the six realms of meaning in the classrooms.  In the third article, Carmelita Thompson discusses ways in which strategic planning implemented by utilizing the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning (Kritsonis, 2007) creates a high performing educational organization.  In the fourth article, Barbara Thompson discusses significant aspects of the six realms of meaning as it relates to strategic planning in instructional leadership.  In the fifth article, Kashan Ishaq discusses how school leaders’ understanding of the six realms of meaning can be strategically integrated in solving the educational problems of today and improving the schools of tomorrow.  The sixth article, Christine Lewis discusses ways our educational leaders in public schools can incorporate the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning (Kritsonis 2007) to take strategic planning from the modernism age to postmodernism age to improve our nation’s educational system.   In the seventh article, Tyrus Doctor discusses strategies used within our current school environment, while implementing postmodern thinking. In the eight article, David Palmer shows the linkage between the realms of meaning and strategic planning and to show how symbolics, empirics, esthetics, synnoetics, ethics and synoptics has an under pinning value to the planning that is required for successful schools.  In the ninth article, Sheri Miller-Williams introduces the concept of systems thinking and suggest two frameworks that could work to support comprehensive school reform. In the tenth article, Simone Gardiner discusses how postmodernism and the realms of meaning can be implemented in students’ learning with the use of strategic planning.  In the eleventh and final article, Demetria Diggs apprises educators of how incorporating the six realms from the Ways of Knowing Tthrough the Realms of Meaning (Kritsonis, 2007), into school improvement and strategic plans to yield avant-garde results for all educational stakeholders.            (Over)…

Cohort 5 at PVAMU sincerely appreciates the opportunity to publish in the National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal. We thank the National Policy Board representing all National FORUM Journals for their confidence in our work. To be published as doctoral students in a national refereed journal is professionally rewarding. We thank our professor Dr. William Allan Kritsonis for providing outstanding mentorship in guiding us in our writing pursuits.

Queinnise Miller

PhD Student in Educational Leadership – Cohort 5

Prairie View A&M University

Teacher

Alief Independent School District

National FORUM of Applied Educational Research Journal

Volume 23, Numbers 1&2 2009-2010

Issue Distribution and Circulation (Approximations)

Issue Distribution Libraries……………………………..    948

Association of College and Research Libraries……   383

Deans, College of Education …………………………….   396

NCATE Accredited Institutions…………………………     632

Selected Professors……………………………………….  1,289

State Superintendents……………………………………        52

Editors of National, Regional, State Journals………….  95

School Superintendents/Principals/Supervisors…2,005

Bureaus of Educational Research Services……………243

Conference Distribution…………………………………       279

National Organizations………………………………….       104

International Distribution/Worldwide…………………  641

2,839 Circulation

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National Council of Education Research and Training in Vocational Education

The National Council of Education Research and Training is concerned so far only with the Hr.Secondary Vocationalization programme in formal schools. Its Department of Vocationalization of Education which is in the process of being converted into a Central Institute of Vocational Education is the nodal agency for all aspects relating to curriculum development, staff development, research, evaluation and monitoring and international contacts.

The scope of the Department extends over the entire country but it has only an advisory and guiding role to perform. Having attained sufficient experience and expertise in Hr. Secondary Vocationalization programmes the department is now actively associated with the development of various types of vocational courses for the under-graduate stage of education under the auspices of the University Grants Commission. In relation to the vocational training component under the Ministry of Labour the NCERT is represented on the National Council of Vocational Training which is t he apex decision making and coordinating body for its institutions throughout the country.

In respect of Technical Education Programme, the NCERT is represented in the All India Council of Technical Education, a statutory body to look after technical and management education in the country.

The NCERT is also directly involved with the programme development of the Indira Gandhi National Open University and National Open School through the participation of this author on their appropriate decision making bodies.

Design Development & Materials

The practice component of a vocational course varies from 50 to 70%. The curricula and instructional materials are also developed by the R&D institutions concerned with each sector. For the higher secondary courses, the NCERT prepares exemplar instructional materials and the states also prepare their own instructional packages. The courses developed by NCERT are based on the analysis of job requirements, and have been grouped under a common title of “Competency Based Curriculum”.

Both curricula and instructional materials are developed in workshops in which the employment sector personnel, curriculum experts, subject experts and classroom teachers participate. So far, these materials have been prepared on the basis of annual papers rather than modules or units suited for instruction in a semester system.

The semester system, though accepted in principle for implementation is yet to become a reality in the school sector. However, the NCERT has initiated course organisation in the form of flexible module so as to suit the semester system, and also would lead to the development of multi skill competencies to meet the employment requirements in the rural areas.

All instructional materials, both print and non print, though owned by NCERT are freely available for duplication and dissemination by the states. The copyright permission is invariably granted for this purpose. The higher secondary programmes by design are collaborative in nature. The schools offer theoretical instruction and basics in terms of vocational practice which is followed by on the job training or practical training at the actual work site. In the entire teaching-learning process the full time teachers are supported by a large number of part time instructors and guest lecturers drawn from the respective employment sectors. While the above is the suggested modality, many schools still depend on institutional instruction and training in place of collaboration mentioned above, but, the deployment of part time teachers is almost invariably ensured.

Information collected and compiled from the printmaterial of NCERT

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History

On June 30, 1929, the Cabinet ratified that the government print and edit the primary textbooks exclusively. The responsibility was transferred to the office of Examinations and Programs.

.The activity began in 1967 at the General Office of Studies and Programs under the supervision and management of five foreign advisors.

.The Organization for Research and Educational Innovation was established under the law passed by the Consultative Assembly and the Senate on July 8, 1976.

.In 1977, the Organization for Text-books and the Organization for Research and Educational Innovation joined to form a new organization.

. On March 3, 1979, under the ratification of the Supreme Council of the Islamic Revolution, the new organization was named the Organization for Educational Research and Planning (OERP).

Objectives

.To research and survey on the quality issues of the education

.To develop educational programs

.To write and edit text-books

.To support Schools and educational institutes in using new tools and methods

All of these objectives support the major aim of increasing the quality of the educational system

OERP Responsibilities:

1. To research on the content of the educational

2. To study and develop simple methods for examinations and educational assessments

3. To write, edit and print text-books.

4. To identify and provide educational tools and the list of standards for educational tools and equipments

5. To run pure research on improving the quality and quantity of education

6. To perform other responsibilities issued by

the OERO Council

OERP Vision:

OERP is a scientific, learning and growing organization with qualitative and knowledge- based curricula consistent with the scientific and research findings, technological, national identity, Islamic and cultural values that through constructive interaction with similar organizations at national, regional and global levels tries to prepare the situation for the education of the knowledgeable, strong and religious students who are ready for active participation as dignified citizens

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Oral History: A Viable Methodology for 21st Century

Educational Administration Research: National Impact

_______________________________________________________________________

ABSTRACT

This article identifies three 21st Century realities that are redefining research in educational administration:  1) the increasing need for relevancy and authenticity in addressing community and school problem solving contexts; 2) the need for a research method that permits the kind of in depth interviewing of knowledgeable individuals with minimal Institutional Review Board (IRB) oversight; and 3) a methodology that can be facilitated by emerging technologies. Oral history has been employed in many disciplines but has seldom been used in educational administration. It offers some promise and the authors suggest possible uses and interpretations of one proposed oral history project and one completed oral history project.

______________________________________________________________________________

Purpose of the Article

The purpose of this article is to examine oral history interviewing and historical research as a viable research method within the broad family of research methodologies in educational administration and educational leadership. The evolution of research methodology in educational administration has been influenced by changing paradigms, changing needs, increasing institutional Review Board (IRB) oversight, and changing technology. Educational administration research differs from other academic disciplines in that it involves the opportunity to find new and innovative uses for research findings for problem solving and decision making in school settings.

Research in Educational Administration Undergoing Transformation

Educational administration research has undergone great transformation during the past century. Business management principles drawn from industry dominated the first half of the 20th Century of educational administration thought.  During the 1950’s and 1960’s various social science methods and concepts shaped a new generation of educational administration thought and research methodology (Campbell, Fleming, Newell & Bennion, 1987; Murphy, 2003, Fall). By the late 1980’s business and social science methodologies were supplemented though not replaced by qualitative methods drawn from anthropology.  Action research fills yet another educational administration research niche. It places less emphasis on formal theoretical constructs while focusing on authentic, campus-based data gathering, and problem-solving. This continuing growth in acceptance of research methodologies from other disciplines was described by Campbell, et al:

Educational administration is an applied field rather than an academic discipline. It does not draw upon a single body of literature nor use a single set of scholarly tools…an applied field must maintain a vital concern not only with the extension of knowledge but also with the improvement of practice…Similarly…an applied field must be concerned with problems in their totality – drawing on the methods of many disciplines. (1987, p. 3)

Not all influences on educational administration research in the 21st Century have been methodological.  A national increase in Institutional Review Board (IRB) oversight has greatly influenced educational administration research (Herrington & Kritsonis, 2006).  There remains great variance among universities regarding the extent to which educational research is subject to IRB oversight. Some universities exempt educational studies from IRB oversight completely, especially those studies that were intended to examine quality improvement in educational institutions or action research used for classroom instruction. Some universities were requiring complete reviews of every aspect of research regardless of methodology or intended uses of the data. Navigating the maze of IRB restrictions at some institutions has led to avoidance of some research methodologies or populations and in some cases resulted in diminished research activity altogether (Herrington & Kritsonis, 2006).

Technology has made most forms of research far more convenient and achievable. For example more user-friendly Windows or UNIX based statistical software programs such as Stat-Pac, (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), and SAS have replaced hand-calculations, data punchcard readers, and mainframe versions of the statistical software. Qualitative researchers have access to coding software such as HyperRESEARCH 2.6, NVIVO 7, computer-assisted Qualitative Data Analysis (QAQDAS 07) to assist with high volume qualitative data coding capabilities. Audio and video recording equipment, imaging equipment, and related software continue to be developed for oral history recording, however, analog recordings continue to be preferred by most oral history professionals.

The challenge for educational researchers in the 21st Century is to select a methodology that can provide a relevant context for examining education issues within specific contexts that are reliably and accurately preserved. The methodology must also yield a study that is achievable within a reasonable time frame, is affordable, and must satisfy ethical requirements or minimize the need for IRB scrutiny.

A  Methodology-in-Waiting

Charlton (1985) defined oral history as “the recording and preserving of planned interviews with selected persons able to narrate recollected memory and thereby aid the reconstruction of the past” (p.2). Baum (1978) defined oral history as:

1.      a tape recorded interview, or interviews, in  question-and-answer format,

2.      conducted by an interview who has some, and preferably the more the better, knowledge of the subject to be discussed,

3.      with a knowledgeable interview, someone who knows whereof he or she speaks from personal participation or observation (sometimes we allow a second-hand account),

4.       subjects’ of historical [or community] interest…

5.      accessible, eventually, in tapes and/or transcripts to a broad spectrum of researchers. (pp. 389-390)

The value of oral history for educational researchers and practitioners is found in the background that can be provided by credible participants who are able to enrich understandings of the immediate problem-solving context or who can draw parallels with other contexts. Sometimes dramatic events or significant phenomena require giving voice to otherwise silent observers or constituencies that know the true nature of  the problem of interest, but who have never been consulted by historians or decision makers. For example, ethnographic shifts in recent years have created major cultural divides in communities and schools that challenge long held assumptions of teachers and administrators regarding their client student populations.

An example is found in formerly rural/now suburban high school campus that in 1995-2004 comparison revealed the following demographic changes in students and teachers. In 1995 only 17 percent of the students of this inner city campus were Hispanic, 15 percent were African American, 65 percent of students were Anglo. The teacher demographic representations were similar. Ten years later 67 percent of the students were Hispanic, 17 percent were African American, but only 16 of the students were Anglo. The teacher demographics remained relatively unchanged over the same 10 years.

Conversations with parents, teachers, and administrators reveals that the unexpected demographic gaps that occurred during the preceding ten year period had resulted in an increase of racial tensions wherein teachers/student and teacher/parent conflicts occuring. The achievement of Hispanic students continued a downward spiral, attendance and dropouts were increasing, and disciplinary alternative educational placements were soaring.  These realities placed the district in jeopardy of losing its standing based on statewide criteria and NCLB standards.  This was a phenomenon that could be documented through oral history interviews and the results made available as a case for other districts. In this case a number of interventions might be possible in the short run but a comprehensive and effectively planned longer term plan informed by carefully conducted oral histories would provide some valuable context and community history of the community that can provide answers to working with all parties affected by the problem.

Another example is the fact that during the 1960’s and 1970’s the educational and experiential cornerstones for the first generation of Mexican-American college and university presidents and chancellors in the state of Texas and the nation were being established within an educational and cultural environment of South Texas that was hostile to the aspirations and future advancement of Latinos (Herrington, 1993, August). What can be learned about the education and mentoring experiences of these highly successful individuals would be invaluable to educators and other minority individuals making career and education decisions.

These two very real scenarios though unrelated have some connectedness. There are lessons that the teachers and administrators at the high school undergoing dramatic demographic shifts (study proposed but not yet conducted) could learn from the South Texas study of successful Hispanic students who grew up in communities that 30 and 40 years earlier resembled their current demographic and cultural realities. Communities that are just beginning to face the realities of permanently altered demographic landscapes can learn a great deal from their South Texas predecessors, precisely because those experiences have been previously recorded and transcribed for future reference (Herrington, 1993, August). The thoughts and feelings of these successful Hispanic individuals regarding their experiences, parents, teachers, and mentors (many of whom were Anglo as well as Hispanic) are eloquently recorded and transcribed for posterity. Their stories reveal personal strategies and significant persons who once extended a helping hand.

In both of these cases, oral history methodology presents perhaps the only way to preserve otherwise unobtainable information. Concerning oral history Hoffman (1974) wrote:

Its most important advantage…is that it makes possible the preservation of life experience of persons who do not have the …leisure to write their memoirs…Interviews with people who have been foot soldiers in various important movements of social change but have heretofore been unrecorded may now be preserved and hence their impact assessed. (p. 26)

The Role of History in Educational Reform

Scholars have identified several uses for history in educational research. History can be instrumental in effecting social reform, predicting future trends, or in influencing practice through the training of educators (Borg & Gall, 1983). Comparing the work of historian to that of psychotherapist Borg, et al noted that history has a particularly liberating function for educators:

To Freud, neurosis is the failure to escape the past, the burden on one’s history. What is repressed  returns distorted and is eternally reenacted. The psychotherapist’s task is to help the patient reconstruct the past. In this respect the historian’s goal resembles that of the therapist – to liberate us from the burden of the past by helping us to understand it. (p. 802)

It is our common understanding of history and the ability to learn from our shared past that distinguishes humans from all other creatures. Wector (1957, August) wrote:

Chimpanzee with a stack of empty boxes and a banana hanging out of reach soon learns by his own experience. But man alone learns from the experience of others. History makes this possible. In the broadest sense, all that we know is history. More strictly, it is the road map of the past. (p. 24)

History is our collective memory. The ability to utilize history and extract useful generalizations and theories is uniquely human. Without a record of the past we are left to navigate life’s course without the aid of those who have gone before us.

In a cogent essay published posthumously, Kennedy (1964, February) provided several reasons for examining the historical record. He noted:

There is little that is more important…without [history]…[one] stands uncertain and defenseless before the world, knowing neither where he has come from nor where he is going. With such knowledge, he is no longer alone but draws a strength far greater than his own from the cumulative experience of the past and the cumulative vision of the future. (p.3)

Ethical Oversight of Oral History

And Technological Considerations

Historical research and particularly oral history interviewing provides context and clear precedents that can be explored and considered for educational policy as well as practice. Educational researchers and IRB board members might wince at the notion of preserving recorded interviews. Such practice seems to contradict ethical provisions safeguarding anonymity of research subjects.  This is where the difference between oral history interviewing and other methodologies is important. Unlike any other discipline or methodology, oral history interviewing requires the spoken words of a specifically named individual connected in time and place by means of recording data on audio tapes, video tapes, images, documents, and transcripts preserved so as to be accessible for historical verification (Dunaway, D.K. & Baum, 1984).

To address this ethics concern, the Organization of American Historians (OAH) and the Oral History Society (OHS) in October 2003 successfully petitioned the U.S. Office for Human Research Protection (OHRP), part of the Department of Health and Human Services, for a special ruling on oral history research interviewing. They were especially concerned with oral history projects that do not involve the type of research defined by HHS regulations. It was determined that some oral history projects may not fall under the “Common Rule” (45 CFR, part 46) that define research as “a systematic investigation, including research development, testing and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.”  According to the Organization of Oral Historians (2003, November):

This type of research involves standard questionnaires with large samples of individuals who remain anonymous, not the open-ended interviews with identifiable individuals who give their interviews with ‘informed consent’ that characterizes oral history. Only those oral history projects that conform to the regulatory definition of research will now need to submit their research protocols for IRB review. (p. 17)

An advantage of the oral history interview, therefore, if the study is carefully designed, is that IRB oversight has become far less restrictive than for other methodologies.

Concluding Remarks

In conclusion, oral history methodology is technology-intensive. Emerging 21st Century technologies as well as existing technologies continue to simplify and broaden the capabilities of the oral historian, both for gathering information and presenting information in a variety of formats. Digitizing voice, image, video, and text materials have greatly reduced the processing and production time for producing and presenting oral history findings.

Finally, oral history interviewing, more than ever before, has enormous potential for giving voice to silent but important players within the arenas of social change – including community and school. In order make any further changes in our school systems educational leaders and researchers have got to find ways to hear these previously unheard voices. Well designed studies that seek out these voices of individuals who have given informed consent can provide historically and contextually rich information specific to time and place with minimal IRB oversight. Finally, technology is rapidly expanding the repertoire of formats for archiving and presenting very useful and usable knowledge to drive school improvement.

References

Baum, W.K. (1978). The expanding role of the librarian in oral history. Library Lectures,

6, 33-43. In Dunaway, D.K. & Baum, W.K. (Eds.), Oral history: An interdisciplinary anthology pp. 387-406). Nashville, TN: American Association for State and Local History and the Oral History Association.

Borg, W.R. & Gall, M.D. (1983). Educational research (4th ed.). New York: Longman.

Campbell, R.F., Fleming, T., Newell, L.J. & Bennion, J.W. (1987). A history of thought

and practice in educational administration. New York: Teachers College Press.

Charlton, T.C. (1985). Oral history for Texans (2nd ed.). Austin, Texas: Texas Historical

Commission.

Dunaway, D.K. & Baum (1984). Oral history: An interdisciplinary anthology. Nashville,

TN: American Association for State and Local History and the Oral History Assocociation.

Herrington, D. E. (1993). Barriers, influences, and leadership challenges of selected

Mexican-American upper level administrators in South Texas public higher education, 1970 to 1990. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M Universi

Herrington, D.E.  & Kritsonis, W.  (2006). A national perspective for improving the

working relationship between educational researchers and Institutional Review Board members. National Forum for Educational Research Journal, 19(3), 1-5.

Organization of American Historians (2003, November). Oral history excluded from IRB

review. OAH Newsletter, 31(3), 17.

Wector, Dixon (1957, August). History and how to write it. American Heritage, 8(5), 24-       27, 87.

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